Shakespeares King Lear and Arthur Millers Death of a...

A German Proverb once stated that, â€Å"Every man is the architect of his own fortune.† In expressing his opinion that people have more control over their fate than their fate does over them, this proverb was mistaken. Contrary to what the Proverb espoused, the cruelty of the world and the harsh reality of blind fortune have much more to do with what happens to a person than what actions they take, and good actions cannot guarantee good fortune. The inaccuracy of this quote can be proven in looking at both the tragedies of King Lear, by William Shakespeare, and Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller. If the proverbs quote was assumed to be true, those who do good and are loving beings would prosper in good fortune, but this is unfortunately almost never the case. Often it is irrelevant what a person does in determining what luck they have, and many times good people have horrible things done unto them. In King Lear, a king makes the mistake of giving his two evil daughters his kingdom, while he banishes his most loving daughter. Another noble makes a similar mistake in trusting his son who is greedy and selfish. These mens mistakes cause a struggle for power over the kingdom, ending in great tragedy when King Lears loyal and loving daughter, Cordelia, is hanged. Cordelias character exemplifies perfectly how a good person can still have awful things happen to them. After not confessing her love directly to her father, although she clearly cares deeply for him, CordeliaShow MoreRelatedKing Lear Bottoming Out Essay900 Words   |  4 Pagesturning point for the better. Unfortunately, there are also many people who just give up the fight against the dark place referred to as â€Å"bottom.† Bottoming out is exemplified in William Shakespeare’s tragedy King Lear and in Arthur Miller’s equally tragic Death of a Salesman. In order to interpret the process of Lear and Willy’s incidences with â€Å"bottoming out† it is important to analyze their lives before and after they hit the dark place in their heart and mind, and the circumstances they were bothRead MoreThe Sonnet Form: William Shakespeare6305 Words   |  26 PagesShakespeare’s Sonnets William Shakespeare The Sonnet Form A sonnet is a fourteen-line lyric poem, traditionally written in iambic pentameter—that is, in lines ten syllables long, with accents falling on every second syllable, as in: â€Å"Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?† The sonnet form first became popular during the Italian Renaissance, when the poet Petrarch published a sequence of love sonnets addressed to an idealized woman named Laura. Taking firm hold among Italian poets, the sonnet

Male Gender Roles And Women - 2367 Words

In society today, boys and girls are taught by those around them that there are but two ways only to live a life- the manly way and the feminine way- and that to stray from one’s designated role in the world is unacceptable. Men in particular suffer from the confinement of gender roles and are exposed pitilessly to society’s punishing repercussions if one chooses to defy his preordained position. I myself have felt the pungent sting of the male gender role in my own life, having grown up alongside a twin brother who was about as â€Å"manly† as a boy can be. I can recall one day only a few years ago when I, thrilled and eager, was sitting down to watch my newly-purchased copy of the 25th Anniversary of The Phantom of the Opera- my absolute†¦show more content†¦That was simply who I was. It took time and much self-examination to eventually accept that there was nothing wrong with me. I was not inferior to or less of a man than any other male in the world- merely a victim to a long line of harmful misunderstandings of the male gender. Society has set a precedent of aggression, barbarity, and dominance for men to follow to be perceived as â€Å"normal†, effecting youth negatively and damaging one’s self-image. Men are influenced strongly everyday by the world around them to put aside traditionally feminine tendencies and behave like a man- beginning, first and foremost, in the home. The household serves as a boy’s initial introduction to the exclusive sector that is manhood. It is there that they are brought up and reared to be the strapping, virile man they are destined to become. It is rare to find a boy who is not at least familiar with the phrase â€Å"Wipe some dirt on it,† teaching them to â€Å"[employ] the automatic â€Å"I’m fine† response to almost any emotional difficulty† (Glazer 7) and fooling family members into thinking they are valiantly tough warriors, dismissing any po ssibility of help or protection. It is understood that boys run around and play in mud and scrape their knees while girls sit inside and play with dolls- any sign of the opposite being quickly ended by parents. Boys are also turned away from calling their mother and father â€Å"mommy† and â€Å"daddy† far sooner than

Air pollution Causes and Effects

Question: Write an essay about Air pollution - causes effects. Answer: Introduction: Air pollutions are substances which are present in the air and affect the lives of the human beings and also their ecosystem. This doesnt only affect the lives of human beings but also the lives of other living creatures. The pollutant can be of man-made or also of natural origin, and they are classified into categories mainly primary and secondary. The substances which from the parts of primary pollutant are ashes that come out from the volcano eruption and also includes carbon monoxides that come out from the vehicles or the sulfur oxides that are released from the industries or factories. The secondary forms of pollutions are regarded to those pollutions which are directly emitted they are the part of the primary form of air pollutants which are interacted or reacted. As per it can be taken into consideration the only prominent example of the secondary pollutants is ground level ozone (Chen et al., 2013). Body: The major pollutants which are produced by human activities are: Sulfur oxides (SOx)- This chemical components are evolved from the volcanic eruptions and also from industries. Sulfur compounds are often contained in petroleum products and coal. Due to the effect of Sulfur Oxides, acid rain occurs and affect and has the impact on the environment. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)- The affects of nitrogen oxides results in high temperature and also in the occurrences of thunderstorms by the discharge of electricity. Carbon monoxide (CO)- It is a nonirritating gas which is colorless, toxic and odorless. It occurs due to combustion of fuel such as coal, natural gas or wood. It also occurs from vehicles. There are various other causes of air pollution such as: Power plants- The sources of renewable energy such as turbines of the wind and solar panels helps in producing a large amount of power each and every year to produce electricity. As a result in the production of electricity, there is a burning of fuels such as oil, coal and gas which is converted into power plants. Thus, it produces lots of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, etc (Zannetti, 2013) Industrial factories and plants- The production of steel, cement, refined petroleum, synthesize, etc. are the most harmful air polluting substances. In many of the factories, there are lots of smoke and dust generation in very short time. Due to his reason, there is a land mark case in Indian history of Bhopal in 1984 December (Chen et al., 2013). Other various causes of air pollution- The majority of the man-made pollutions occurs from traffic, chemical and industrial plant, power plant, etc. in many parts of the world woods and coals are burned in order prepare cooking and heating. This results in pollutions as they generate a lot of smoke and dust (Shah et al., 2013) Effects of air pollution: Health of Human- Air pollution has a massive effect on human health as in some of the estimates it is suggested that 10-20% reason of cancer is due to air pollution. Due to air death of many people are caused due to asthma, bronchitis, lungs diseases, etc. in the factories workers suffers a lot due to dust pollution caused and suffered from illnesses known as silicosis. As stated by the World Health Organization (WHO) the biggest human killer in the world is air pollution. Due to air pollution many kinds of natural calamity also takes place which ultimately results in the loss of human lives such as earthquakes, drought, floods, etc (Lave Seskin, 2013). Agricultural effects- The pesticides, fertilizers, etc. used in the crops for its high-yielding growth for the ever-growing population. Due to air pollution there is an effect in a growth of the plant and also effects the water which results in effect pollution. In another hand, we can say that due to the high increase of carbon dioxide there is an effect of global warming. It also results in climate change, and its major impact is affected in the agriculture of the world. As there is an effect of pollution even the crops are becoming unfit to consume, and indirectly it effects the human life (Unsworth Ormrod, 2013) Other effects- In this kind of situation, we can state that the effect is basically from the fumes that come out from traffic. There are also various effects from other sources such as acetone it is used in remover of nail polish which evaporates very fast and mixes with the environment and causes air pollutions, and also affects the body of the person whose smells it nearby. The effect of glossy paints that are used for painting house and door or windows etc. affects the air, and the smell also affects the human body. Due to air pollution certain kind of natural calamity takes place such as global warming, acid rain, green house affects ozone hole, etc (Klaassen, 2013). Conclusion: Air pollution is a curse to the society and affects the human rights. It is divided into two categories namely the primary and the secondary category. The basic ingredients of air pollution are gasses and smokes that are occurred from nitrogen, carbon-sulfur, etc. the effects of air pollution effects human lives as well an agricultural system. Thus, it can be stated that the increase of air pollution results in a death of many people. Not only has this it also affected the ecosystem of the world for which the world is losing its balance. For the future generation, air pollution is very affective and will harm their daily lives in many ways, so various measures are needed to stop air pollution (Seinfeld Pandis, 2012). Reference list: Chen, Y., Ebenstein, A., Greenstone, M., Li, H. (2013). Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from Chinas Huai River policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(32), 12936-12941. Chen, Z., Wang, J. N., Ma, G. X., Zhang, Y. S. (2013). China tackles the health effects of air pollution. The Lancet, 382(9909), 1959-1960. Klaassen, C. D. (Ed.). (2013). Casarett and Doull's toxicology: the basic science of poisons (Vol. 1236). New York (NY): McGraw-Hill. Lave, L. B., Seskin, E. P. (2013). Air pollution and human health (Vol. 6). Routledge. Seinfeld, J. H., Pandis, S. N. (2012). Atmospheric chemistry and physics: from air pollution to climate change. John Wiley Sons. Shah, A. S., Langrish, J. P., Nair, H., McAllister, D. A., Hunter, A. L., Donaldson, K., ... Mills, N. L. (2013). Global association of air pollution and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 382(9897), 1039-1048. Unsworth, M. H., Ormrod, D. P. (2013). Effects of gaseous air pollution in agriculture and horticulture (No. 32). Butterworth-Heinemann. Zannetti, P. (Ed.). (2013). Air pollution modeling: theories, computational methods and available software. Springer Science Business Media.

Shahid afridi and his career free essay sample

hahid Afridi has signed to play for Sydney Thunder in Australia’s Twenty20 Big Bash league. [7] In June 2009, Afridi took over the Twenty20 captaincy from Younus Khan, and was later appointed ODI captain for the 2010 Asia Cup. In his first match as ODI captain against Sri Lanka he scored a century however Pakistan still lost by 16 runs. He then also took over the Test captaincy but resigned after one match in charge citing lack of form and ability to play Test cricket; at the same time he announced his retirement from Tests. He retained the captaincy in limited-overs form of the game and led the team in the 2011 World Cup. In May 2011, having led Pakistan in 34 ODIs, Afridi was replaced as captain. Later that month he announced his conditional retirement from international cricket in protest against his treatment by the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB). However, in October he reversed his decision. We will write a custom essay sample on Shahid afridi and his career or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page UNICEF and Pakistani authorities have taken Shahid Afridi on board for its anti-polio campaign in the tribal belt of lawless Waziristan region. In October 1996 at the age of sixteen Afridi was drafted into the ODI team during the four-nation Sameer Cup 1996–97 as a leg spinner as a replacement for the injured Mushtaq Ahmed. [10] He made his debut on 2 October against Kenya, however he didnt bat and went wicketless. [11] In the next match against Sri Lanka, Afridi batted at number three in the role of a pinch-hitter. In his first international innings, Afridi broke the record for fastest century in ODI cricket, reaching his hundred from 37 balls. The eleven sixes he struck also equalled the record for most in an ODI innings. Afridi later pleaded guilty to a level three breach of the ICC code of conduct relating to the spirit of the game. Match referee Roshan Mahanama said: This ban should serve as a message to players that this type of behaviour is not allowed. On 12 April 2006, Afridi announced a temporary retirement from Test cricket so that he could concentrate on ODIs, with a particular focus on the 2007 World Cup, and to spend more time with his family. He said he would consider reversing his decision after the World Cup. Afridi had played ten Tests since being recalled to the side in January 2005, averaging 47. 44 with the bat including four centuries.

buy custom The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering essay

buy custom The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering essay The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering What do we see on TV or in magazines? - Ideal slim and sporty Photoshoped models. Whom we are admiring? Intellectual, multi-task active positive person. Idealization is in the core of people minds which transformed into a fetish today. Gyms, dietitians, plastic surgery are all selling us the perfect image we have to imitate. How about ideal food with the best nutrition features? How to win a fight against deadly diseases? Genetic engineering can be a solution, the perspectives of this new born science is sky high. The society has already added on their armoury genetic engineering, but in the process of targeting hot issues a human had found a lot of ambiguous questions we still cant answer objectively. The scientific progress is growing and advancing so rapidly that people cant find solutions huge ethical dilemmas. Every progress has the side effect of its own. Where are milestones of genetic engineering hiding? Genetic engineering is a course when specific features, genes are taken from one organism and inserted into another (plant or animal). Off course long time before this science appeared farmers tried to yield the sweetest corn, the biggest potato, the most productive wheat etc. Same situation was with the livestock. They were selecting healthier and fatter animals to produce good stock in future. With the help of breeding technologies humanity had produced new breeds of animals and better quality plants. Lets recall brief history of genetic engineering. Right in the beginning of 1990s two grains was modified genetically, which were corn and cotton. A famous goat Dolly was genetically cloned in 1996. This fact brought high resonance among people. In 2003 first human genome was defined. Some scientists predict that by 2015, new parents will pay ten dollars to have their babys DNA sequence read at birth and placed in his or her medical file. (Kafka, 2009, 10) With every year scientists introduced new spheres where genetic engineering can function. The science has occupied the field of medicine, research, industry and agriculture. What gains this science brought to each field and what were the donts which caused so many questions among humanity? Medicine has adopted the best from genetic engineering. Since the beginning of its history the pharmacy field was based on medicinal features of herbs. Foxglove, wildflower, common mold are still a core of drug therapies. Animal parts were used to cure people as well. A lot of diabetics were saved due to the genetic engineering. In 1920 the scientists discovered that hormone insulin produced by pancreases. It has given the opportunity to debride it from the animal pancreases. The side effect was the strong allergic reaction in some diabetics. The recombining process of DNA was mastered and engineers had defined human insulin into bacteria which became a small factory for producing insulin and prevent future allergic reactions. The promising future of gene therapy is obvious. The process can repair or replace the defective genes which cause genetic diseases. Over past 10 years some autoimmune illnesses were treated by gene therapy. Engineers strongly believe that in future Huntingtons disease, cystic fibrosis and other illnesses with defective gene can be successfully cured by genes therapy or even through gene surgery. Pregnant women are insisting on scanning their fetuses on the genetic diseases. It can prepare parent for possible special requirements of a newborn. The scientists are researching the future possibilty to use gene therapy for the embryos before the process of in-vitro fertilization. Breeding has also added genetic engineering to their arsenal of creating new enhanced products. Sheep are farming for clotting protein for helping people to clot the blood and ATryn, which prevent peoples blood from thickening. Scottish biologist Helen Sang is incubating a plan to produce chicken eggs enhanced with proteins for treating a variety of human diseases. (Kafka, 2009, 14) The scientists from California are researching chicken eggs as well for the purpose of enhancing protein in them. The eggs are well known source of protein and growing quantity of it can help to treat different diseases. Agriculture is using genetic engineering in all fields. Genetically engineered food is spread all over the world. Food is modified for prevention different allergic reaction in consumers, for prolongation its life on shelves, increasing nutrition features and even to cure different diseases. Pros of genetically modified food (GMF) are variable so as the cons. The main advantage of GMF is the ability of controlling the emergence of concrete diseases. Certain products can cause specific allergic reactions, by modifying the DNA of concrete food the genes causes it eliminated successfully. The second profit is the fact that GM food grows faster that the natural one, it can be safe of plant pests, pesticides and insecticides. This feature makes GM cheaper than crops grown in natural form, which is very lucrative for the farmers as well as the consumers. Better nutritious abilities and long time life without spoiling are the remarkable pluses for both customers and suppliers. What about the donts of this science. After cloning the first animal people greeted the scientists all around the world for their magnificent impact into the science. As the genetic engineering leap further of its development the humanity stuck facing the questions of morality, ethics and simply what is right or wrong. Several years ago a deaf couple while planning their child has decided that their newborn has to be deaf as they are. We feel whole as deaf people and we want to share the wonderful aspects of our deaf community a sense of belonging and connectedness with children. We truly feel we live rich lives as deaf people. (Sandel, 2007, 1) When the story has appeared in newspaper it brought a lot of severe dispute. The main issue was the right to choose for the future human being disabled for the rest of his life. The freedom of choice is one of the substantial virtues a human being has. A future child with implied characteristics beforehand lacks this freedom. In this case a f uture human wont be able to speak only because its parents afraid he would have the advantage in front of them. Is it a huge selfishness? There are other parents who want their children have the best qualities for functioning in the particular society. It always depends on society what the exact features you will need to become successful and happy. What if a child planned with high mathematical abilities could be the best dancer or artist? We will never know. The human nature of controlling and idealizing everything around can play bad tricks for the humanity. The future genetic engineering can possibly prolong the longevity of human life. Demographical boom is already the problem of our planet today, the longer life can be a disaster. High price of genetic engineering can also cause the increasing of social and economical inequality. Wealthy layer will have more possibilities to create super humans and as the result the ordinary people will suffer from bad treatment and lack of an y ambitions and possibilities. There is one case occurred in California. A woman named Julie has lost her pet, which was the delight of her life, she has found out an organization cloning cats. She paid for 50000$ for the identical copy of her pet. After this accident the company reduced the price to 32000$ per cat and revealed their new strategy to make 100000$ per cloned dog. If you feel that your kitten doesnt suf%uFB01ciently resemble the genetic donor, well refund your money in full with no questions asked.(Sandel, 2007, 4) Doesnt it sound weird to create home pets by cloning instead of taking new ones? If talking about disadvantages of agricultural usage of genetic engineering it is impossible to mention that the consequences of GM food arent digested properly. Instead of useful nutrition such food can cause harm to our bodies. According to some scientists opposed to genetic engineering GMF can be a reason for developing illnesses immune to the antibiotics. Some of the antagonists claim that the using such food can boost the development of cancer. Many suppliers of modified food simply suppress the information that their products have GM ingredients. In this case a customer cant be sure which product is modified and which isnt. One of the biggest layers of opponents is religious and some cultural sectors. The idea of developing modified food seems unnatural for many humans as well. The fact that this kind of food can harm other species in our nature surroundings is worrying too. There is another social problem which can put developing countries in dependent position of industrializ ed countries, because the last will be able to control food supplies all over the world. The main problem with the genetic engineering itself is the lack of knowledge in this science. As it was mentioned above this field is very young and the impact on human body is absolutely unpredictable. First positive results can cause some negative ones in the future generation. That is why most people now avoid GM food. How to answer the questions in the cases when the ethical and moral rules collide with genetic engineering? Is this science for good or for bad? How to depict the right resolving of the problem? It is not the issue that we need this kind of knowledge, it is already saved a lot of lives and brought new perspectives into vary fields of science. Now a mother can be aware beforehand if her child will have genetic illnesses or not. A lot of ill people can find a cure through genetic engineering, food can have a lot of new features. An allergic to oranges can eat modified fruit with no fright to have problems with health. The opposition to the pros arguments stands moral values people cant deny. Personal freedom can be very fast thrown back if the parents will be designing the future generation. It is a big fright that we at the end allow the cloning of a person and the idea of uniqueness of a person will vanish with the word. It is normal to be afraid about the impact of experiments with the genes implanted into the different organisms, crops and animals and vice versa. It is difficult to predict what new illnesses can cause MD food. What if well have genomes of animals or vegetables? However it is difficult to deliberate and to say for sure what new possibilities and features genetic engineering will bring us. Lack of researches of side effects and the science itself due to a short time of this field existence makes totally impossible answering all these questions. Buy custom The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering essay

Examples of Toponym or Place Name

Examples of Toponym or Place Name A toponym is a  place name or a word coined in association with the name of a place. Adjectives: toponymic and toponymous. The study of such place names is known as toponymics or toponymy- a branch of onomastics. Types of toponym include agronym (the name of a field or pasture), dromonym (the name of a transportation route), drymonym (the name of a forest or grove), econym (the name of a village or town), limnonym (the name of a lake or pond), and necronym (the name of a cemetery or burial ground). EtymologyFrom the Greek, place name Examples and Observations The name Chicago is first recorded in 1688 in a French document, where it appears as Chigagou, an Algonquian word meaning onion field.(The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000)An angry aide characterized the shopping spree as Wasilla hillbillies looting Neiman Marcus from coast to coast.(Hackers and Spending Sprees, Newsweek, Nov. 5, 2008)Hooterville was Xanadu with pickup trucks, an odd yet comfortable land with an irresistible charm.(Craig Tomashoff, When Life Was Simple. The New York Times, July 4, 1999)The Influence of the DanesWhen we find more than 600 places like Grimsby, Whitby, Derby, Rugby, and Thoresby, with names ending in -ly, nearly all of them in the district occupied by the Danes, we have striking evidence of the number of Danes who settled in England.(Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language. Routledge Kegan Paul, 1978)Dutch TermsEnglishmen have pretty much considered anyone theyve come into contact with as being lazy , poor, cowardly, untrustworthy, thieving, and of substandard morality, a mind-set of superiority reflected in a litany of set phrases in the language. . . .Surprisingly, those who got the worst of English abuse were the Dutch. Most expressions we now use concerning the people of Holland are harmless, such as Dutch door, double Dutch, and Dutch oven, but previously, terms containing Dutch were the idiomatic equivalent of a Polack joke. A bookie who loses money is a Dutch book; Dutch courage is inspired only by booze; if youre in Dutch, youre in prison, or pregnant; and a Dutch widow is a prostitute. Still in wide use is to go Dutch, which describes an actionnot paying for your datethat languages around the rest of the globe call to go American.(John B. Marciano, Toponymity: An Atlas of Words. Bloomsbury, 2010) Toponyms From American Indian WordsThousands of toponyms in the United States and Canada derive from American Indian words. One is Chanhassen, a Twin Cities suburb in Minnesota. In the Sioux language, this word refers to the sugar maple tree. The place name translates to the tree with sweet juice. Sometimes the reference is not so pleasant. Stinkingwater Peak, Wyoming, takes its unflattering name from a nearby river.(Gerald R. Pitzl,  Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Greenwood, 2004)The MississippiIn Algonquian, the forms linked together in a toponym are descriptive as in Mohican missi-tuk big river, and the toponym as a whole is used to identify a particular place [that is, Mississippi].(William C. McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm, Approaches to Language: Anthropological Issues. Mouton, 1978)Magenta, Duffel Bag, and PaisleyMagenta is a reddish-pink color, and it is a toponym. The rather upbeat color is named after a downbeat scenethe blood-soaked battlefield at the Battle of Magenta in Italy in 1859 (Freeman, 1997). Other toponyms include duffel bag (Duffel, Belgium), sardines (the island of Sardinia), and paisley (Paisley, Scotland).(Dale D. Johnson, Bonnie von Hoff Johnson, and Kathleen Schlichting, Logology: Word and Language Play. Vocabulary Instruction: Research to Practice, ed. by James F. Baumann and Edward J. Kameenui. Guilford, 2004) Tuxedo Park, Marathon, Bikini, and LyceumWords that you might not suspect were toponyms include tuxedo (Tuxedo Park, New York), marathon (from the battle of Marathon, Greece . . .), spartan (from Sparta in ancient Greece), bikini (an atoll in the Pacific where the atomic and hydrogen bombs were tested), [and] lyceum (a gymnasium near Athens where Aristotle taught) . . ..(Charles H. Elster, What in the Word? Harvest, 2005)The Lighter Side of Toponyms: Westward Ho!The village of Westward Ho! in Devon, England, is the only place name in England that ends in an exclamation point. The village borrowed its name from the title of Charles Kingsleys popular novel set in nearby BidefordWestward Ho! (1855). Pronunciation: TOP-eh-nim

Term paper 2 Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Term paper 2 - Article Example Introduction Nursing theory is essential to all nurses as they develop their knowledge through their extended studies and learn to evaluate the different cases they will encounter during their careers. Most notably, understanding ethics in nursing theory is also important as part of the evaluation process as concerns patients and their health. In a global society, technology and research knowledge are advancing at a rapid rate, and more so now than ever before, future nurses must engage in continual education and developing their theories of nursing. The term, ethical knowing, outlines the fundamental pattern of knowledge, theory and purpose in the business of nursing (Carper, 1978; Noureddine, 2001). Ethical Knowing It should be understood that while nursing goals and actions within the terms of ethical knowledge is evaluated within the framework of each medical case the nurse will encounter. While a simple solution might be viewed as obvious, in a further review of the circumstance s surrounding a case, it may be determined that another path of treatment would be far better for the patient rather than just the accepted book-learned course of treatment. In reviewing ethical knowing from a philosophical viewpoint and through terms of ontological and epistemological dimensions, the ontological dimension refers to ethical traits which nurses must possess – empathy and compassion. In the epistemological dimension, the moral validity of what nurses must be is to be truthful and maintain the confidentiality of the patient (Noureddine, 2001). Ethical theories encompass the deontological, utilitarian, right-based, intuitionist theories which are associated most often with ethics in nursing. Deontological, duty-based theories have four major principles: the personal liberty to act; doing no harm; action which improves the welfare of others; and justice in treating people equally and fair distribution of resources (Noureddine, 2001). Utilitarian theory is action-b ased with the outcome as the basis, which is also referred to as maximizing the good for everyone rather than addressing individuals. Right-based theories are more concerned with the individual as the center and protecting individual choice. Autonomy and self-determination are part of right-based theories. Intuitionist theories, on the other hand, put the elements of duties, rights and goals on the same level, and it is up to the nurse and her moral intuition to make the ethical decision for any particular situation (Noureddine, 2001). Yet, as nurses have discovered for themselves, occasional cases may show that two theoretical frameworks may apply, and determining the more salient resolution, becomes a dilemma for the nurse in the process of caregiving. Initially, nurses might question why there is such a thing as nursing theory and for those who are first encountering the concept of theory, the reaction is one of fear and trepidation (McEwen & Wills, 2010). The point for theory in nursing is that it educates nurses to think on a more evolved level which will assist them later as professional nurses in assessing individual cases. Theory can also be from outside of the nursing field when assisting in looking at and analyzing a case from all angles. Ultimately, theory is ‘guidance through interpretive assumptions, principles and propositions which help explain and

Use of Indian mascots in sports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Use of Indian mascots in sports - Essay Example As such, it is bout time the truth was let out to the people as a means of ending negative stereotyping and racism drawn from deep within our history. Such efforts can attain significant efficacy if the issue is tackled from the sports context which evidently bears much of the concealed negative stereotyping of Native American Indians. The National Congress of American Indians has in the past explained that most depictions of Native American stereotypes in educational and/or commercial settings vilify and defame tribal nations, native cultures, and native peoples. This happens in that they usually spread legacies of prejudiced attitudes and racism that are rooted deep within ancient American cultures that looked down upon the natives particularly in the pre-civil rights era. This does not however mean that the teams that use names such as the Washington Redskins, Atlanta Braves, and Cleveland Indians deliberately use them to annoy or humiliate the Native American Indians; in most cases, they have no idea what is concealed in the names and mascots. This means that even Indian images such as the Chief Zee, ChiefNoc-A-Homa and Chief Wahoo portray the Native Americans as ethnic groups frozen in history. In this, political inequity and racial segregation emerge. The matter of Native Indians being oppressed dates back to American history when they were being accused of being â€Å"unreasonable savages who had corrupted new national ideals of political stability and economic continuity† (Deloria 39). The contributing factor as to why Indian mascots and other related phenomena are used to mock Indians is the fact that they were rich in symbolism and had multiple objects, beliefs, and imageries that were associated with them. For instance, the Red Indian face with a feather sticking out of his hair and the tomahawk are identities associated with the Native American Indians. Today, such names and imageries are used in sports teams and in popular merchandise such as

Original script Essay Example for Free

Original script Essay My character in this scene was Mrs Johnston she was very emotionally upset as her husband left her with seven children and two on the way. She wants her and her family to lead a good life and find wealth my characters function throughout the play is to give birth to the twins and tell the twins that they are brothers. The fact that Mrs Johnstons husband left her and she does not make that much money as she has no job and she is starting a new makes the character stronger and in this scene Mrs Johnston tell the audience this. The other scene that me and my grouped developed is the final scene in the play this is about Mickey (one of the twins) going round to see Eddie (the other twin) they still do not know if they are brothers. Mickey thinks that Eddie is having an affair with his wife Linda. This is the final scene this was from the original script and was the scene when the twins (Eddie and Mickey) both find out they are both brothers and this is also the scene when they both get killed by Mrs Lyons. In this scene there are 5 people involved Mrs Lyons, Mrs Johnston, Eddie, Mickey and the narrator. We looked at the scrip of this scene and read it between us. Even tough there is 5 people involved in this scene there was only 3 people in my group so we had to split characters and lines so that we could include all the characters. As we read the script we took important lines and highlighted them, we had to make sure all these lines were in the performance. For the characters I was Mickey, Fabien was Eddie and Natalie was Mrs Lyons and Mrs Johnston. We all split the important narrators lines. The performance was set up like this: K = Katie N = Natalie F = Fabien K stands on one side of the stage and say the narrators lines then K walks in to Fs office (the block) there is a thought-track of what K wants to happen then it goes back to that is really happening and they have an argument N walks in and tells the twins they are brothers then N turns around and as she turns back she is a different character the contrast changes and her mood as a different person is the opposite to what she was the twins both end up on the floor and N speaks the narrators lines and the brothers get up and repeat the past in a previous scene that had happened earlier in the play. We used still-imagery as the narrator was talking, we would come out of character and say the lines in neutral as there in no view from the narrator this would be done with neutral face expression. The thought-tracking we used was with Mickey (K) imagining what he is going to do when he moves into the office of Eddie (F). We made sure that when a character changed roles that the audience new about it with the change of tone and the different mood that changed when the character changed. We tried to create height with the block we used but also we created heights with our characters as one person would be at one height another person would be at a different one. We changed the tone of voice and accent when the character changed roles. When the narrator was talking at the end of the scene there was the miming of a scene that was earlier in the play. We also had music at the end to signify the end and to show what the play was about and this was the innocence of children and how they do not stereotype and distinguish classes of people. Evaluation I believe that I have learnt a grate deal about the play and the playwright I now understand a lot more about how to uses different drama techniques and use them together to crate different moods and styles. As we watched another groups performance of a scene in which they had developed we evaluated it and took these points into consideration: I believe this was to signify the distance between the two characters as in this scene they are having an argument. Ant the beginning of the scene there was mime I believe this worked well as this built up tension and created the mood as if we knew what was going to happen. Thai used a lot of the scrip in this scene but they added and developed a lot of text into it as this helped the audience understand more. There was a lot of different drama conventions used in this scene there was a few minuets in the middle of the scene when the two characters were having a fight and this was done so that the characters were not touching each other and the were both stood on different blocks there was music played in this section and it was really effective towards me, as the audience. Also there was a monologue done in this scene I liked this as it helped me to understand what was going on and how the character was felling at the time. I believe that more costume and props could have been used in this scene to help the characters develop more gestures. The use of space and height was very good in this play and because of this it was nice to watch and I enjoyed it. In all of the performances they could have been improved with time as we only had a short time to develop and rehearse the scenes we were still using scrips and this put the audience off what is actually happening. More costume and make up would of helped use create are characters more and also if we would of been able to use a stage it would of helped with the blocking and how the scene looked. I believe that the message of the play was that you cannot separate different classes of people as we are all the same inside also that the play had a very suppositious side to it and that fate cannot be controlled. Religion plays an important part in the play as the bible is used many times and signifies if something is said on the bible it will happen. The main context of the play is twins should not be separated and that the innocents of children should not be overlooked as they do not see different colours of skin and a difference of people with money and without money is not significant to them. The play was set in the early 1970 an example of an extract taken from the scrip is this Then of course I found that I was six weeks overdue We got married at the registry and then we had a do We all had curly salmon sandwiches and how the ale did flow; They said the bride was lovelier than Marilyn Monroe And we went dancing Marilyn Monroe was very big in the 1970s and it was also very looked down on if you had a child out of wed lock at this time. I enjoyed developing from this play as I have very strong views about the stereotypical view of people who have wealth. I believe that I began to understand more about the play now that I have preformed the different scenes and developed them with my own ideas. I believe that Billy Russell is a very talented writer and I would be interested in using or watching another one of his play as I believe that he writes most of it from experience and that it has a strong belief in all of the historical contexts his plays are about. I have learnt a lot about new drama techniques and how to use them together I believe that blood brothers was a very good play to use on paper 1 unit 2 as there was a lot to develop from the script and there was a lot to come out in between the lines! W did these brainstorms so that we could understand Mrs Lyons more as she was a completed character.

Essay on Female Companions in The Awakening and A Dolls House

Importance of Female Companions in The Awakening and A Doll's House      Ã‚  Ã‚   Female companions are very important to the development of the main characters in Kate Chopin's The Awakening and in Henrik Ibsen's A Doll House. Mademoiselle Reisz and Madame Ratignolle, in The Awakening, and Kristine Linde, in A Doll House, help Edna Pontellier and Nora Helmer discover their inner selves.    Mademoiselle Reisz, Madame Ratignolle, and Kristine Linde all act as role models for the protagonists. Edna deeply admires Mademoiselle Reisz's piano playing. When Edna hears Mademoiselle Reisz's playing, "the very passions themselves were aroused within her soul, swaying it, lashing it, as the waves daily beat upon her splendid body" (Chopin 35). Mademoiselle Reisz makes Edna see the strong emotions inside herself. Edna admires Madame Ratignolle's "comforting and outgoing nature" (Solomon 118). At the beginning of the novel, Edna wishes she could have Madame Ratignolle's easygoing nature.    Kristine Linde is a role model for Nora because of her independence. Kristine Linde has suppo...

Police Code of Ethics Essay

Professions and associations of criminal justice have canons of professional reliability.  The morally idyllic police scheme would be with integrity and nothing confusing regarding it (no deceitfulness or mischief); no discrimination and no disrepute for the restrictions of law or how it is imposed.   All that made privately would be just as if it’s made publicly.   Mistakes are viewed as edifying prospects; however there are less of it due to prevalent obedience to the principles of decency, decorum, self-control, rationality, and vigilance. According to the Police Code of Ethics (Earle, 1970), â€Å"As a law enforcement officer,† their, â€Å"†¦ fundamental duty is to service mankind; to safeguard lives and property; to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation, and the peaceful against violence or disorder; and to respect the constitutional rights of all men to liberty, equality, and justice† Police officers keep their private life pure in preserving courage tranquil despite jeopardy, disparagement, or mockery. It’s their duty to â€Å"†¦develop self-restraint,† and become continuously watchful of the people’s wellbeing. â€Å"I will be exemplary in obeying the laws of the land and the regulations of my department,†- this proves they vow to be truthful in their thoughts and actions in their individual and professional life. The code says that whatever they hear or see of a private temperament or confided with them during their executive faculty will be undisclosed unless they are required to reveal during the execution of their duties (Earle, 1970). The code furthers – â€Å"I will never act officiously or permit personal feeling, prejudices, animosities, or friendships to influence by decisions. Police officers made an oath to put the law into effect politely and suitably devoid of trepidation, favour, acrimony or malevolence – â€Å"†¦with no compromise for crime and with relentless prosecution of criminals†¦ never employing unnecessary force or violence and never accepting gratuities (Earle, 1970).† Police officers distinguish the emblem of their office as a representation of their civic faith, and thus recognizing it as a trust to be held from the public providing they are true to the principles of their service. Police force workers are to secure individual standards superior than the other constituents of a community. Inappropriate manner has been a frequent charge used in censuring as well as controlling policemen – on and off their duties. Printed throughout the 1950s, the Code of Ethics of Police Officers has a stipulation that is habitually oriented in preparations over and above court decisions that guarantees, avowed: â€Å"I will keep my life unsullied as an example to all.† Decisions of the Court on the subject of public employee misdemeanours concerning inappropriate conduct frequently necessitates that the act of misdemeanours encompass a nexus or relationship to an employee’s performance on his/her job or capability to act upon or contain an unfavourable effect on an agency’s implication, good organization, or operations; police force employees are held to a higher model of behaviour (Small, 1964). Whilst public agencies comprise the capability of restricting conduct not on call, an agency can’t misuse this power and should articulate rational underlying principles for its willpower that the behaviour of police officers harmfully affected an agency’s capability to execute or impacted suitability for public service. A law enforcement agency has to institute how manners of police officers affected the process, morale and effectiveness of that agency. These are vital and momentous hoops stemming from several court decisions concerning inappropriate conducts of police officers that a law enforcement agency have to jump through when commanding regulation. Selection, recruitment, as well as training mechanisms are unblemished, with endorsement on account of merit, nobody being devoid of full custody, and a law enforcement agency giving its workers resources they require to better execute their work.   There are open-door guidelines to academics, the public, as well as media.   Nothing a police force carry out or how they execute it would appear as a disclosure to anybody.   The pledge to the code of ethics is absolute.   Police officers do not lower their ideals or even revise their avowal, because conditions in their locations change.   The exact ordeal of the character is keeping faith despite difficulty. List of Ethics in Government – Law Enforcement / Police Officers (Reams & Yoak, 1987) Article I. Trust – (a) Ethical aspiration, (b) Fiduciary duty, (c) Conflicts of interest, (d) Soliciting or accepting personal gifts, (e) Outside employment, (f) Use of official position to solicit privileges or special treatment, (g) Statements of economic interest, (h) Post employment restrictions, (i) City property, (j) Political activity, (k) Loans. Article II. Fairness – (a) Ethical aspiration, (b) Required reporting of fraud; unlawful use of public funds or property, (c) Discrimination or harassment, (d) Nepotism, (e) Use or disclosure of information. Article III. Accountability – (a) Ethical aspiration, (b) Avoiding bias or favouritism, (c) Inappropriate influence, (d) Ethical practices board, (e) Ethics officer, (f) Code of ethics violations, (g) Sanctions, (h) City contract compliance, (i) Ethics education, (j) Additional ethical standards permitted, (k) Definitions. References Earle, H.H. (1970). Police-community relations; crisis in our time – 2nd Ed. Springfield, Ill.,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thomas. Reams, B.D & Yoak, S.D.   (1987). The Constitution of the United States : a guide and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   bibliography to current scholarly research. Dobbs Ferry, NY : Oceana Publications. Small, N.J. (1964). The Constitution of the United States of America; analysis and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   interpretation. Annotations of cases decided by the Supreme Court of the United States to   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   June 22, 1964. United States Supreme Court, and Library of Congress Legislative   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reference Service. Washington DC: U.

Adult Education and Training Essay

Abstract This paper work presents the summary of the most well known adult learning theory – Andragogy, explains how it accounts for the characteristics, patterns of learning, and motivation adopted by adult learners. Moreover, reflects on my own qualities and circumstance as an adult learner; critique the strengths and weaknesses of Andragogy. Key Words Andragogy, pedagogy, adult learning, education, training, adult learner, characteristics, motivation Introduction All these years, the specialized field of education has generated a number of models and theories of adult learning, included transformation learning theory, experiential learning theory, informal learning theory†¦etc. And the most important one with which to be familiar is Malcolm Knowles’ Andragogy. Andragogy was described as the â€Å"art and science to teaching adults to learn† (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). It also interpreted the foundation and structure of adult learning, the concept of andragogy has been worldwide used in different times with different connotations and seem as a bible of adult education. Andragogy The notion of andragogy has been around for nearby two centuries. It originally formulated by a German teacher, Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983). He used â€Å"andragogy† to describe education theory. Andragogy literally means â€Å"man leading†, which contrasted with pedagogy (Since andr- is Latin for â€Å"man†, peda is Latin for â€Å"child† and agogus is Latin for â€Å"leading†). And later on, couple educators had used the term of â€Å"andragogy† in their article. It included Rosenstock in 1921; Lindeman wrote â€Å"The Meaning of Adult Education† in 1926. The notion of â€Å"Andragogy† was well developed, widely discussed and used in 1980 by Malcolm Shepherd Knowles, a champion of andragogy. Knowles first introduced the concept of in the US in 1968. With his previous work on informal adult education, Knowles used those elements of process and setting to construct the shape and direction of adult e ducation. The concept he used to explain the theory of adult education was the notion of andragogy. â€Å"Malcolm Knowles, Informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy† (Jay-D Man, 2009). Knowles applied the idea of andragogy as the foundation of adult learning, he marked it as a new born technology which moderates the development and performance of adult learning. He posited six assumptions related to the adult learners: 1) Need to know, 2) self-concept, 3) experience, 4) readiness to learn, 5) orientation to learning , and 6) motivation to learn  (Knowles, 1980) Need to know â€Å"Adults want to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it† (Knowles, 2005). Adults are realist, they want to find out what is the advantage and the loss before they make decision to do something. The â€Å"why†, â€Å"what†, â€Å"how†, â€Å"when†, â€Å"where† will first came to their mind before they making choices. For example: A man find he needs to improve his academy standard to get a promotion at work, which is â€Å"why† he wants to continue learning; he will choices a subject related to his present career to learn, he knows â€Å"what† he needs to learn and â€Å"what† is expected of him; in order to achieve his goal, he knows â€Å"how† he going to do and plan; beside works and take care his family, he needs to know â€Å"when† he studies; after conducts research, he knows â€Å"where† is a best place for his continuing learning. Self-Concept â€Å"Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives† (Knowles, 1998). Adult learners are autonomous, they expect and enjoy independence, like to take control in everything and see themselves as self-directed. They don’t want adult educators use a pedagogical model to teach them. They think learning is a process of sharing with the teacher and one another, for example, they prefer interaction rather than formal subject issue. So teacher has responsibility to encourage and promote the process of self-direction. That is why Knowles emphasizes that adult educators must â€Å"make efforts to create learning experiences in which adults are helped to make the transition from dependent to self-directing learners† (Knowles, 1998). Experience For those adult learners, they are individual differences in their background, occupation, education standard, learning style, interests, goals and motivation will cause different experiences than youth when come into an educational activity (Knowles, 2005). Upon the adult learners’ prior experience, Knowles (1998) point out four paths that adult experience  learning: A wider range of individual differences will be established. Offer a richest resource for learning. Create deviation that can restrain, or sculpt new learning. Provide area for adults’ self-identity. Since the adult learners have many experiences, teacher must draw on learner experiences. Everyone in class could share their experiences through experiential techniques (simulations, group discussions, or problem-solving activities, etc). Moreover, sometime the adult learners may have more experience than the educator in some area. The communication and knowledge sharing will not only limit between instructor and student, also lead to 2 and 3 way interactions: between instructor and learner, learner and learner as well. Readiness to Learn Adults learn in order to cope effectively with real-life tasks. They normally come to class motivated, and ready to learn things they need to know. Knowles observes that â€Å"adults generally become ready to learn when their life situation creates a need to know† (Knowles, 2005). Anticipate the adults’ readiness to learn is very important in adult education, it determine how to proceed the training, and what strategies and activities should apply to meet a learner’s readiness. Surveys of learners prior to beginning a course, or some introduction course before the advanced courses are the ways to retrieve the material and aware the learner’s readiness. Orientation to learning Learning is a process of increasing competence to achieve full potential in life. According to Knowles, adults are problem-centered in their orientation to learning (Knowles, 2005). They prefer a problem solving orientation to learning (problem centered), rather than content-oriented. This orientation relates to their experience, task or problems in everyday situations. The sense of adults is that learning will allow them to execute task or deal with problems faced in life. When they confront real-life situation, they want to learn what will help them to contribute their  effectiveness, and they learn best in this status. Motivation Motivation is the last core of Andragogy assumption, but not the least. Knowles emphasizes the adult learner’s motivation can be blocked by training and education if neglect of adult learning principles (Knowles, 2005). â€Å"Adults tend to be more motivated toward learning that helps them solve problems in their livers or results in internal payoffs† (Knowles, 1998). Adult learners are responsive to some motivators. And normally those motivators can be divided into external (e.g., better job, higher salaries) and internal (e.g., desire of job satisfaction, self-esteem). And the andragogical model assumes adult learners tend to be more motived by the internal motivators than the external one. Implement Base on the six assumptions of Andragogy, let’s see how adult learners and educators began to implement the practical applications: Assumption Adult learner Educator Need to know Have a need to know what they expect to learn before investing time in a learning event Make sure that the learners know the aim, goal and purpose of training as early as they can. Self-concept Must uphold the concept of self-directing, responsible their own growing. Coach learners to find their needs and guide their own learning experience. Experience Come to a learning occasion with richest of experience and trade-off to contribute. Create and maintain a learning environment to build on and make use of learner’s experience. Readiness to learn Uphold a strong readiness to learn those things that they undertaking to learn. Ensure training relates directly to situations adult face in real-life task Orientation Dedicate their energy to learning things that help them cope with daily life  or solve a problem. Identify learner’s needs and interests, develop content based on the their needs. Motivation More responsive to internal motivators than external motivators. Create a safe learning environment and make sure the internal motivation will not blocked. Characteristics of Adult learners According to the Andragogy, Malcolm Knowles practiced a characterization of the defining features for adult learners, and shown as following: Adults have identifiable goal – they clearly understand what they need and know how to achieve their goal; Adults are independent – they are expect and enjoy independence, like to take control, and should allowed to express themselves freely; Adults have wealth of experience – need others to recognize their previous experience, including both positive and negative; Adults want immediate usefulness of their learning – they want to apply what they learn to solve and handle problems faced in their daily life; Adults fear to the educational process – normally graduated from school years and do not familiar with those process; Adults are hard to change – with their prior experience, their conducts become a habit, and some even though became their character already. Andragogy vs Pedagogy Since the Andragogy is a learning theory for adult learners, and which is contrast to Pedagogy. The following table summarizes the assumptions and processes of andragogy and pedagogy: Assumption / Processes Andragogy Pedagogy Need to know Clearly understand why they need to know before choose to learn. Only need to know what the teacher teaches. Self-concept Raise of self-directedness Dependency Experience Learners are a wealth resource for learning Tiny worth Readiness to learn Developed from life’s experience Directly related to age level and curriculum Orientation Problem centered Self centered Motivation Motivated by internal payoffs and curiosity Motivated by external incentives and punishment Time perspective Immediacy of application Postponed application Learning climate Interaction Respectful Informal Authority Competitive Formal Planning Mutual self-diagnosis By educator / instructor Formulation of objectives Mutual negotiation By educator / instructor Teaching strategies Experiential techniques Transmittal techniques Evaluation Mutual measurement of program By educator / instructor Barriers of learning Compare with children and teenagers, adult learners have different roles and many responsibilities in their daily life, they must balance against the demands of learning. Those responsibilities will cause barriers against their choice to return to school or participate in workplace training. Normally, those barriers can separated into three categories: 1) Attitudinal barriers; 2) Time and financial barriers; and 3) Education barriers. We need to identify those barriers and overcome them and take control of our own learning. Attitudinal barriers Knew already – People with â€Å"I already know† attitude to reject learning. He think it does not require training in that area, because he may already trained or thought himself had enough knowledge in that aspect. And properly people has this attitude are come with good education level; Previous experience – Generally people are used to learn in a traditional style, instructor teach with transmittal techniques. With this experience, they may feel the learning is irrelevant or boring, so they reject. Lacks of trust – Students attend a class with different backgrounds and goals. Do not trust the other participants will cause some of them do not participate actively in class for nervous and shy. Problems of motivation – people come to learn without initiative, they were forced to learn. Hard to motivate people if they don’t have own motivation. Time and financial barriers Lack of time – No matter the duration of a course, adults need to invest time to join it. They need to â€Å"sacrifice† from other activities and concern of its existence. Lack of money – Free training is minority. Therefore, money always is a main barrier to access adult education services. Family responsibilities – Caring for children, the obligation of accompany spouse, will cause shortage of study time. Organizing schedule – You need to change or sacrifice the study timetable because of the family and work responsibilities. Education barriers Too old to learn – Generally can be find in older and low education level people. The behaviour of reject learning is because they don’t familiar with the new technology or specialized languages, and their reaction time is often slow. Lack of confidence – Low self-esteem, past failures experience mark the adults, preventing them to overcome frustrations and fears. Reflection First of all, I would like to introduce myself, and the brief of my background are shown as below: Male, 42 years old, married with 2 children (12 Yrs & 7 Yrs). I’ve been serving the Hong Kong Police Force for 22 years, working in operational field but non-frontline. Besides operation planning, I’m also involved in a â€Å"Diploma in Police Search & Venue Security Programme†, which was held by Hong Kong Police and granted accreditation from HKCAAVQ, I’m one of the instructors of this programme. I am F.5 graduated, then granted a diploma of Police Policing on 2002, and that was my last academic certificate. According to my profile, I am a typical adult learner and faced most of the barriers that I had mentioned previously. I would like to critique the strengths and weaknesses of andragogy with my own circumstance. Strengths As an adult learner, the motivation of learning is very important, is core factor of adult education. Adults have different tasks and needs in their daily life; they will put their needs in orderly with the seniority. If the need is related to learning, they will have a great motivation, and learning become the priority in their life, so no any barriers can block them, and they study best in this situation. However, the concept of â€Å"motivation† is not the strength of andragogy in my view. Upon my opinion, I will choose the concept of â€Å"need to know†, because it’s the factor that cause â€Å"motivation†. With the â€Å"why†, â€Å"what† and â€Å"how†, I will explain the principle of â€Å"need to know† on my circumstance. At the beginning, I come to class for my own promotion and seem as career  investment. I like my current career, and seem to be my life occupation. In order to enhance my competitive advantage and help myself excel in my working place, I choose to continue learning. That will offer opportunities for further development and lead promotion. My view have change during this training, I find out I know more about the adult training theory, which help me to teach the trainee in my programme; enhance the communication skill with my children and people around me. The most important is I know myself more, I am shortage not only in academic standard but also in daily knowledge. I enjoy study and hunger for the knowledge. My motivation of learning becomes stronger and stronger, because I clearly understand why I need to learn, what I need to learn and how I need to learn. Weaknesses During this moment, I will say the concept of â€Å"Orientation† is the weakness of my own learning. Since I come for learning is not for a problem solve purpose, and the subject I study also not relate to my daily task. Conclusion Knowles introduced and develop the andragogy as core principles of adult learning. It help the educator designing and conducting adult learning, and build more effective learning processes for adults. Andragogy works prefect in practice when it is adapted to fit the special character of the learners and the learning organizations. References Adams, N. B. (n.d.). Andragogy. Andragogy. Retrieved March 1, 2014, from http://www2.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/nadams/etec630%26665/Knowles.html Ana, B. (2013, October/November). Characteristics of adult learning. Characteristics of Adult Learning. Retrieved March 1, 2014, from http://www.slideshare.net/aliceproject/39-ana-badea Andragogy how adults learn. (2013, October/November). Andragogy How Adults Learn. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/xilo24/andragogy-how-adults-learn Aspell, D. D. (n.d.). Retrieved August, 2003, from http://www.umsl.edu/~henschkej/andragogy_articles_added_04_06/aspell_Andragogy%20-%20Adult%20Learning.pdf Crawford, S. R. (n.d.). Retrieved March 1,

Creating Good Emergency Lesson Plans

Creating Good Emergency Lesson Plans Teachers are required to have a set of emergency lesson plans so that in the event of an emergency there is no interruption in the delivery of instruction. There can be any number of reasons to need emergency plans: a death in the family, an accident, or a sudden illness. Since these types of emergencies can arise at any time, emergency lesson plans should be not be associated with lessons that are part of a sequence. Instead, emergency lesson plans should be related to topics covered in your classroom, but not part of core instruction.    Regardless of the  reason for your absence, your substitute plans should always include information critical to the operation of the classroom. This information should be duplicated in the emergency lesson folder. For each class period, there should be class lists (with parent phone numbers/e-mail), seating charts, times for a variety of schedules (full day, half-day, specials, etc) and a general comment on your procedures. The fire drill procedure and a copy of the student handbook should be included in the folder as well as any special school procedures. While still keeping a students right to privacy in mind, you may also leave general notes to prepare the substitute for any special needs students. You may also provide the names and teaching assignments of those educators near the classroom in the event your substitute might need immediate assistance. Finally, if your school has a substitute log-in for computer use, you may leave that information or a contact for the substitute to request a log-in. Criteria for Emergency Lesson Plans The criteria that should be used in developing a good emergency lesson is similar to what you might leave for a scheduled absence. The plans include: Type of learning: emergency lesson plans should not include new learning, but rather work with concepts or principles that students already understand in your  subject area.  Timelessness: Because emergencies  can occur anytime  during the school year, these plans should address concepts important to the discipline, but not tied to a specific  unit. These plans should also be revisited during the school year and adjusted based on what topics students have covered.Length: In many school  districts, the recommendation is that emergency lesson plans should support a substitute for a minimum of three days.  Accessibility: The materials in emergency lesson plans should be prepared so that students of all levels of ability will be able to complete the work. If the plans call for group work, you  should leave recommendations on how to organize students. Substitute plans should be contain translated materials for English Language Learners if there is a need.  Resources: All materials for the  emergency lesson plans should be prepared and, if possible,   left in the folder. All papers should be copied in advance, and a few extra copies added in the event the classroom numbers have changed. There should be directions as to where other materials (books, media, supplies, etc) can be located.   While you want to make sure that your students are engaged in meaningful activities, you also should anticipate the amount of work you will receive when you return. Your first reaction may be to stuff the folder with many different worksheets to keep students occupied. Returning to school to face a folder filled with busy work does not benefit you or your students.   A better way to help the substitute is to provide materials and activities that engage students and can extend over a period of time.    Suggested Emergency Lesson Plans Ideas Here are some ideas that you can use as you create your own emergency lesson plans: There are always extended questions from chapters in your textbook that you may never get to during the school year.   The extended response  questions (sometimes titled further study...) sometimes take more time than a class period or they may be more challenging and involve  applying skills students already have  in solving authentic or real-world problems. There may be scenarios for students to try. A model of what is expected should be provided to the substitute.There may be articles that are related to your discipline with questions that students can answer. If there are no questions with the reading, you can use these four close reading questions that meet the Common Core Literacy Standards. You should leave an example to model for students so that they should know to provide evidence from the text for each question.What is the author telling me?  Any hard or important words? What do they mean?  What does the author want me to understand?How does the author play wit h language to add to meaning? Depending on the media available in your school, you may want to use short videos (TED-ED Talks, Discovery Ed, etc. ) that are often followed by questions. If questions are not available, the same questions used for an article (see above) can be used in responding to media. Again, you may want to leave a model response for students to see.If your students are capable to do writing enrichment activities independently, and depending on the student access to research tools, you could leave a visual (painting, photo, or graphic) that is related to your discipline and have the substitute use the Question Formulation Technique. The visual can be a current event photo, an infographic for math, or a painting of a landscape for a storys setting.This technique allows students to ask their own questions and build off their peers’ questions. In this activity, the substitute would ask students to formulate as many questions as they can about the visual. Have the students  write down ever y question exactly as it is stated; then have the students  determine which questions can be answered and which need more research. The substitute can lead the class in  prioritizing the questions. Then, the students can choose one (or more), and do the research in order to respond. Leaving the Plans While emergency lesson plans will not cover material you are currently working on in your class, you should use this opportunity to extend their knowledge about your discipline.   It is always a good idea to mark the location of your emergency lesson plans in a place different than your regular  substitute folder.   Many schools ask for the emergency lesson plans be left in the main office. Regardless, you might not want to include them in the folder so as to avoid confusion.   When emergencies come up and remove you from the classroom unexpectedly, it is good to be prepared. Knowing that you have left plans that will engage your students will also minimize inappropriate student behavior, and returning to deal with discipline problems will make your return to the classroom more difficult. These emergency lesson plans may take time to prepare, but knowing that your students have meaningful lessons while you are not available can take the stress out of the emergency and make your return to school more smooth.

How TNT Pop Its Snappers Work

How TNT Pop Its Snappers Work TNT Pop Its belong to a class of novelty fireworks collectively called bang snaps. Similar products are called snap-its, poppers, and party snaps. Kids have been using them for pranks and celebrations since the 1950s. In case you were wondering, Pop Its dont contain TNT. That is simply their brand name. Pop Its are trick noisemaker rocks, commonly seen around the 4th of July and Chinese New Year, that pop when they are stepped on or thrown against a hard surface. They look like little paper-wrapped rocks, which, in fact, is what they are. The rock is gravel or sand that has been soaked in silver fulminate. The coated grains are twisted into a piece of cigarette paper or tissue paper. When the bang snap is thrown or stepped on, the friction or pressure detonates the silver fulminate. Pop its can also be ignited, although its not particularly safe to set them off in your hand. The tiny explosion makes a sharp snap that sounds a bit like that of a cap gun. Chemistry of Pop Its Silver fulminate (like mercury fulminate, which would be toxic) is explosive. However, the quantity of fulminate in Pop Its is very small (about 0.08 milligrams) so the little exploding rocks are safe. The sand or gravel moderates the shock wave produced by the detonation, so even though the sound is loud, the force of the pressure wave is fairly minor. Snapping one in your hand or stomping it with bare feet can hurt, but is unlikely to break the skin. The sand or gravel isnt propelled very far, so there isnt danger of the particles acting as projectiles. Generally, Pop Its and related products are considered safe for use by children. While poisonous fulminates of other metals would produce a similar effect, they arent used in commercial products. Make Pop Its Yourself Fulminates are easily prepared by reacting metal with concentrated nitric acid. You dont want to go making this in any quantity yourself because the fulminate is shock sensitive and pressure sensitive. However, if you decide to make do-it-yourself Pop Its, the silver fulminate is more stable if flour or starch is added to the crystals during the filtering process. You can coat sand with silver fulminate, wrap it in paper, and use it in the traditional way. Bigger is not better - be safe.

Proctor & Gamble (Pakistan) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Proctor & Gamble (Pakistan) - Essay Example One of the most persistent drivers of corporate strategy is the macro-environment that has been explained through the PESTEL analysis. Indeed government policies can effect both supply side and the demand side factors. From P&G’s perspective it is not only the total demand that will be affected by such policies but also have bearing on its distributive policies. Factors like taxation or legislation on wage conditions or employment are all very relevant. But these are direct influences. Other indirect factors that affect the consumer’s income levels will be equally significant contributors that need to be watched and adjustments will have to be made to accommodate these in future strategies. The Five Force analysis has expounded the basis of strategy in relation to the industry environment and the likely impact on P&G’s performance. The company has a few traditional as well as contemporary competitors that take a sizable share of the market. All across the industr y the product range is quite similar as in the consumer industry worldwide. Since there is little difference to choose from, it is the buyer’s perception that assumes importance in this market.

Deaf culture. This paper contains answers for three questions about Assignment

Deaf culture. This paper contains answers for three questions about Deaf Again Book - Assignment Example Moreover, he does not need to speak openly or wear a hearing aid because they could easily communicate, because they were also Deaf. They understand that sign language is an optimum way to communicate with him; therefore, he does not struggle when he communicates with them. As for his hearing grandparents, the experience is opposite as he has to read their lips, speak plainly, wear a hearing aid, and act as a hearing individual; a process that is quite challenging for him. The second difference was their perspective toward deafness. His Deaf grandparents view deafness as a cultural difference between them and hearing individuals. They were very proud of being Deaf. They do not consider themselves as a disabled or consider deafness as something that needs fixing. On the other hand, his hearing grandparents were viewing deafness as a disability and something that needs to be fixed. Therefore, they reject the use of sign language and encourage him to use speech in his communication. In addition, they often felt sorry for him; as they try to improve his speaking skills. The last difference was the Dinner Table Syndrome. Anytime her visits his Deaf grandparents, he does not feel the isolated and enjoys sharing stories, joking, and all kinds of conversation with them via sign language. In contrast, when he visits his hearing grandparents, he feels left out at the dinner table, because he cannot participate freely as the talk, share their stories, and joke through spoken language. The author indicates that there is a critical period for language acquisition for Deaf children; which is usually during the first five years of age. He pointed out that the Deaf parents must focus on sign language accessibility during this period of the Deaf child’s life by allowing their child to interact with his/her Deaf peers and involve in Deaf community activities. He explained that early exposure to sign language during

Protien Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Protien - Essay Example Due to presence of a high degree of palindromic sequences changes were made in the 3rd codons for R and A, and the 1st codon for L based on the second priority codon preference. The changes reduced the chances of self-annealing and formation of secondary structures. The new gene sequence was thus: The next step was to choose the restriction enzymes for cutting out the complete gene after it has been cloned to the TOPO vector. NdeI, which cleaves the sequence CA/TATG was chosen for the 5’ end while BPu1102 which cuts GC/TGAGC was selected for the 3’ end. Both restriction enzymes do not have restriction sites in the chosen vector (but are present in the expression vector which will be used for protein expression later). GCGC nucleotides are added before and after the NdeI and BPu1102 sites respectively to act as primer initiation sites for PCR of the final gene sequence which is the following: 2. The PCR-based methods for gene synthesis normally require a DNA template, which is not available for designed peptides, for error-free amplification. To reduce error, nucleotide stretches of the optimized gene sequences are synthesized and ligated to complementary sequences followed by PCR amplification (Tsuchiya, Morioka, Shirai, Yoshida, & Inumaru, 2006) (Young & Dong, 2004). These procedures result in different gene fragments that have errors in the sequences. Further cloning, purification and sequencing for the desired gene sequence is expensive and time-consuming. In this study, the gene will be synthesized using circular assembly amplification, a new technique in gene synthesis that removes error sequences and increases the probability of getting accurate sequences (Bang & Church, 2008). Here, a mixture of short complementary oligonucleotides (~ 50bp), that are designed with overlaps to allow complementary coupling or annealing, generates circular DNA. This is followed by exonuclease treatment to remove

Bribery In International Marketing Marketing Essay

Bribery In International Marketing Marketing Essay Bribery and corruption is a way of life in many countries and these practices affect the way international business is regularly conducted. However, in most of these countries, it is illegal to offer or receive bribes or engage in corrupt practices. Yet these corrupt practices are a part of the culture or normal way of doing businesses. Unless companies conform to such practices, in many cases, international business cannot be transacted. This essay will try to provide discussion about bribery and corruption in international trade, with examples from very different point of view in according to the principal ethical system, despite whatever religious, realistic and nature. Analyses of the case of Siemens bribery scandal related to ethical issues will be investigated. Bribery is an important issue of concern for many companies. Confrontation of bribery vary across many countries, but everyone has a different concept about it, such as in Hong Kong and Greece, here, managers are less critical of bribery in certain situations than that of the Americas. Paying bribery carries with it a great risk to damaging the companys standing with the country which the briberies are paid, and at home too. Moreover, there is also the risk that the commercial culture of the company will become more open-minded of several of other practices at the legal issues. There is also evidence to suggest that those countries with the reputation for bribery and corruption damage themselves, as it reflects in their economic growth, has a low rates for high level of corruption, like that of Nigeria. It is true to say that bribery in international markets can lead to astonishment, bewilderment and misunderstanding for expatriates, at both organisational and personal levels. This essay examines bribery from two viewpoints and tries to develop procedures to bridge them. The first viewpoint is relativist, accepting that different cultures have different ethical values and not imposing an expatriates values onto another culture. The second viewpoint is universalist, averring that ethics apply anywhere in the world, and is based on psychological and economic grounds. To resolve these two approaches, it is suggested that trying to understand the cultural forces that determine home and overseas attitudes to the many forms of bribery, this is a first step to adjustment. The next step is the development of a global or regional code of conduct that allows flexibility within a gray zone. The result could be an evolving code that adapts to the many dimensions of bribery for each countrys situation, in a manner that is a negotiation between the cultural, psychological and economic values of an expatriates organisation and of local officials. Introduction International marketing is complex as foreign environments are different from home environments, as they differ on physical, cultural, legalpolitical, economic, competitive and distributive dimensions (Ball and McCulloch 1996). Due to these environments, marketers can adapt parts of the marketing mix for each overseas country or region (Hoang 1997), for example, a company might alter its packaging, distribution channels and advertisements in each of its international markets. These marketing mix issues are not the only ones facing international marketers. Cultural management issues are important too, and bribery is the most important of these, at least for Australian and US marketing managers (Armstrong et al. 1990). For example, should a firm pay a customs official to process a shipment through normal channels? Should a firm pay education expenses in its home country for the child of a prince in an overseas country that the firm wants to enter? Should payments to distributors be paid into two separate accounts when one is apparently illegal? Should funds in the public relations budget be paid to someone who appears to do nothing for public relations other than being related to someone in power? Issues like these are important to someone from a culture where these activities are unusual. 1937 Nevertheless, little research has been done on the ethics of international marketing (Armstrong and Sweeney 1994), and interest in ethical issues in general has been mainly empirical (Donaldson 1989). Moreover, levels of corruption vary widely around the world, as seen in a survey of 52 countries by Transparency International (1997). Furthermore, the issue of bribery in particular is often considered within only one of the six different environments above, and bribery is sometimes discussed in the legal environment chapter of a textbook for example, Keegan and Green 1997), where the effect of the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) on that countrys ability to compete with Europe in international markets is covered (Graham 1984). Alternatively, bribery is sometimes in the public relations part of a textbook (Phillips Doole and Lowe 1994), where it is discussed along with concern about corporate citizenship and employee safety. In addition to this, bribery can be treated as a separate, ethical issue, usually based on cultural issues (Donaldson 1996). However, the aim of this essay is to consider bribery from across several environments such as legal, cultural, economic and competitive, in order to develop a managerial approach to the issue. Contribution is an integrated and up-to-date review of these several viewpoints in a form that international marketing managers might find useful. As well as, the review is from a non-US view, while several other papers have a US view that is different from other developed countries (Donaldson 1996; Mayo 1992; Across the Board 1993). It is concluded that managers can develop a code of conduct for the several dimensions of bribery that bridges the relativist and universalist views. This essay has four main sections. Firstly, bribery in developing countries is looked at from a Western view point that aims toshow the roots of bribery may be common to both. This leads into a cultural, relativist view of bribery, which suggests that bribery is appropriate if it is normal in the culture of an overseas country. However, counter arguments to this relativist view are then presented, including psychological and economic arguments. Finally, facing these two contrasting positions, the essay considers how management could handle bribery. In this essay, bribery is defined broadly: bribery is offering, or promising to pay, anything of value to influence an act or decision by officials in a foreign government, including politicians, a political party or a bureaucrat to assist in obtaining, retaining, or directing business to any person (based on the FCPAs definition). This definition does not cover issues such as human rights or child labor use, sexual harassment or industrial espionage. Our definition of dealing with officials about business matters is the one of major concern to marketing managers in particular. 1938 Four Roots of Bribery From a Western point of view, bribery sometimes appears to be caused merely by the greed of locals, especially poor locals. however bribery has four, more complex roots which appear to exist in both Western and developing countries. Firstly, a bribe can be simply linked to a tip to insure promptness at a restaurant, just as a restaurant kitchen can sometimes have inefficient processes that require human involvement to overcome, so can the bureaucracy of a developing country. Bribes may be seen to be a way of purchasing government services when a government cannot afford to provide salaries that are adequate for the service to be provided free to every person (Tullock 1996). Thus, bribery may be a form of privatisation that makes the wealthy who can afford it, pay for a service. Indeed, the relatively high-principled FCPA that tries to limit the involvement of US firms in bribery, actually permits payments to officials to do their normal duties while disallowing payments to high-level officials for special favors. A prime example is a US business person can bribe a customs officer to expedite an inspection but not to skip it altogether. However, the next three roots of bribery may not be allowed by the FCPA. Secondly, a bribe can be considered to be a normal promotion activity. Such as that of BMW cars are provided free to family members of politicians in Western countries for the spillover effect on the prestige of the car. If the wife of the Premier of Victoria, Australia has free use of a BMW, why cannot officials in overseas countries who are close to real power also be given gifts to help promotion. Similarly, many Western companies provide corporate hospitality at sporting venues such as at the Ascot, Henley and Wimbledon in the name of promotion (Ramsay 1990). Therefore, how is this kind of promotion different from some bribery in developing countries? This leads to the third root of bribery, which is related to the general idea of gifts to show respect and gratitude to a person in a relationship, at certain times. Gift giving is common at Christmas time in Western countries, and gift giving at birthday and holidays may serve the same purpose in overseas countries (Onkvist and Shaw 1997). As interactions between buyers and sellers proceed, a social relationship is developed that can be enriched by gift giving. Social relationships are often characterised by the exchange of gifts and hospitality as trust develops between the parties. In seeking to build relationships of trust, the exchange of gifts may be seen as an entirely appropriate act of social bonding. (Wood 1995, p. 11). This reciprocal gift and favor giving is more important in some Asian countries than in the West, simply because of their cultural values (Hofstede 1991, p. 169). Finally, in food and other markets in developing markets, the occasional expatriate customers are usually asked to pay more than locals because the stallholder knows that his or her usual price is usually a far smaller proportion of the discretionary spending of an expatriate than that of a local. A dual price system 1939 reflects the dual economies that exist in many developing countries and do not exist to the same extent in western countries. That is, a poorly paid overseas official with an extended family living in his small house may consider it reasonable to ask a wealthy foreign business person staying at a five star hotel to pay more than the usual low prices for labor and other services in his or her country. Thus a bribe may be seen to improve equity just as a progressive taxation system aims to do in developed countries. The inequity without bribes in a developing country may be even greater than in a market or a taxation system of a developed country, because the official will have high local power from their immediate and extended family, friends and political party despite having low monetary wealth. In contrast to this , the foreign business person has lower power despite having higher monetary wealth. That is, bribery may not violate the Christian but sometimes be considered to be a universal doctrine of love you neighbor like yourself, but actually affirm it (contra Coady in Way 1996, p. 19). Overall in brief then, bribery is seen to exist and has roots that exist in both a Western and an overseas countries. Cultural View of Bribery Implicit in the discussion above is a relativist, cultural understanding of bribery that what is right or wrong, good or bad, depends on ones culture. However, this argument implies that there are no golden rules underlying most human behavior (Way 1996, p. 19), that is, ones own culture is the major influence on views about bribery. This concept of culture therefore deserves to be explored further. Culture has five dimensions: the relationship between the individual and the collective group, power differentials within society, masculinity and femininity, dealing with uncertainty and Confucian dynamism (Hofstede 1991). Several of these dimensions strongly influence views about bribery. The first dimension of individualism/collectivism would appear to be the most related to bribery (Tanzi 1995; in Onkvist and Shaw 1997, p. 175). Developing countries are more collective than developed countries, that is, officials place greater emphasis on their responsibilities to their own extended families and friends, than do Western business people. However individualism/collectivism is not the only cultural dimension affecting bribery. Developing countries are often high on the second culture dimension of power distance, that is, individual officials with which marketing managers deal have major obligations to their supervisors. Thus, the officials will support a bribery culture if it is related to power as some of the four roots of culture above were shown to be, and especially so if their own superiors accept and foster bribery. In addition to this, some Asian countries are more concerned with 1940 virtuous behavior than the abstract truth (which is related to the dimension of Confucian dynamism). An officials actual behavior toward his or her immediate and extended family, and toward friends and superiors is more important than abstract universal values applying to all humans, to which some Westerners cling (Hofstede 1991). Onkvist and Shaw (1997, p. 175) appropriately sum up this relativist, cultural view of bribery: the concept of arms-length relationships would seem strange and alien. It would even seem immoral. The idea that, economically speaking, one should treat relatives and friends in the same way as strangers would appear bizarre. In brief, a cultural view of bribery initially suggests that expatriate marketing managers should simply fit in with local bribery practices wherever he or she goes. However, the cultural relativism approach to bribery developed above cannot be the basis for a marketing managers approach to bribery, because awareness of cultural differences is only the starting point for international cooperation. That is, a marketing manager cannot completely adapt to a different culture and deal in bribes with no regard for his or her own cultural values, for an appreciation of anothers culture does not mean forgoing ones own culture. Successful intercultural encounters presuppose that the partners believe in their own values. If not, they have become alienated persons, lacking a sense of identity (Hofstede 1991, p. 237). To handle the issue of bribery comprehensively for a real world individuals involved in business, managers need to consider issues other than cultural differences per se, and we turn to these relatively universalist issues next. Economic and Managerial Issues of Bribery Economic advantages of bribery for the receiving official and for the company that receives preferential treatment ahead of its competitors, are obvious. However, there are economic disadvantages for both the taking and the giving country. First, bribery can send incorrect signals about demand price and supply cost in a market economy. More directly, bribery adds to the cost of contracts and goods roughly by five percent in Asia (Kraar 1995), this could perhaps be even more in some instances. Secondly, it distorts the decision-making processes too. When contractors are selected on the basis of what the decision-maker will receive personally rather than the contractors ability to do the best, lowest cost job, then the whole economy suffers misallocation of resources. This form of bribery was perhaps a major influence in the recent meltdown of some Asian currencies. Thirdly, bribery can lead to industrial standards being dropped with social and economic repercussions upon the firm. For example, workers may work in substandard conditions that may impair productivity, people may die in buildings that collapse due to building standards inappropriate, and the environment and firms future may be hurt by over-zealous timber-felling. 1941 Moreover, there are other disadvantages of bribery that are particularly important for the giving country. Firstly, home and foreign customers help pay for uneconomic spending in bribes, often for the enrichment of a few overseas individuals who become more wealthy than ordinary citizens of the giving country. In 1995, bribery cost businesses almost $45 billion worldwide (Kaltnhauser 1996). Secondly, bribery could be used against the giving organisation, in the case of managers returning to the home country and rejoining the salesforce at home could accept bribes for practices that the giving organisation does not want done at home. That is, a relativist position that allows a match between expatriate individuals and the corrupt organisations overseas, may also foster at home the separation of personal and organisational moral standards, with consequences at home that the organisation does not want. In brief then, bribery has economic and social disadvantages that a purely cultural understanding leading to a relativist attitude to it, may hide. How Can Managers Handle Bribery in a Competitive Market? Given the two contrasting views about bribery above, what can managers in a non-US company do to bridge the gap between a relativist and a universalist approach to ethics. The practices and what managers in a US firm do is clear, they obey the FCPA or get around it by channeling funds through an agent who then handles the bribery behind a screen. Some managers might try to offset a competitors bribe with a better, total product You might offer a lower price, a better product, better distribution or better advertising to offset the benefit of the bribe to the decision influencer (Keegan 1989, p. 201). This US position is an idealist position that many non-US managers may not adopt, for it assumes that the better, total product will win the contract, when in fact, bribery occurs to oftentimes successfully ensure that it does not. Moreover, competing firms from European countries and Australia are allowed to treat bribes as a tax-deductible business expense, reducing the after-tax effect of the bribe. In April 1996, the OECD passed a resolution saying bribes should not be taxdeductible and in 1993, Transparency International, a not-for-profit organisation with chapters in 40 countries, tried to increase awareness of briberys existence, but anti-foreign bribery legislation outside the United States does not yet exist. Moreover, one is never sure of the level of bribes that competitors are offering for a project, and so deciding on how much to improve the total product to fight bribery is difficult. In addition, bribery is sometimes paid for day-to-day operations as well as a project, and so discussion of a better, total product may be of limited usefulness. For instance, if bribes are not paid by an individual firm, it may experience bureaucratic delays on wharves and in warehouses and its goods may 1942 be stolen, while its bribe-paying competitors do not experience these costly problems. In brief, curbing bribery from an idealistic position may be quixotic until the United Nations or a similar organisation arranges for a multinational, legal approach to it. Given the present, imperfect world within which companies operate, some more options to handle bribery are available. One option is to choose to internationalise into the less-corrupt countries. Clear examples of corrupt countries are China, Indonesia and India, which are rated among the most corrupt countries to do business in the world after Russia; indeed, corruption in Indonesiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is almost a way of life. Only Singapore is more squeaky-clean than most Western countries (Hard graft in Asia 1995, p. 61). Organisation code of ethics. There is another option to approaching the ethical gaps in international marketing. Firstly, within the home firm, managers could develop an organisation code of ethics for any non-home country within which it operates, or maybe for a particular region of many countries. For all these countries, this code would outline the degree of standardisation and adaptation in each of eight or so dimensions of bribery, such as expediting bureaucratic processes, promotion, corporate hospitality, gifts, dual prices, wage rates, occupational health and safety standards, and lobbying to influence government policies. The code would take into consideration the cultural, legal-political, economic, competitive and distributive environments of each foreign market and the home organisation. For instance, it might specify when bribes appear on an invoice and when they may not (adapted Cadbury 1987). Moreover, acknowledging the greatest differences between an expatriates and his or her home organizations ethical systems, and the local environments ethical standards, this code might specify when some purchases or tenders are outsourced away from the organisation to a local agent. familiarisation tour of the home organisation would help home country managers appreciate overseas operations, and helping with scholarships to home country universities would foster long-term links when the students return. Of course, managers need to know relevant national and international laws or hire reputable lawyers who know local laws and customs. Although local legal and judicial systems can be underdeveloped, flawed and flouted (for example, with bribes), a firm may have in its global code that local laws will always be observed, even if the risks involved in flouting them, even though competitors may be prepared to take the risks. Finally, to help implementation of the code, the organisation could institute and code of ethics sensitisation training before managers enter an overseas country and when they return, based on cross-cultural sensitisation sessions like those discussed in Hofstede (1991, p. 232). Ethics audits could also be carried out, emphasising improvement and learning about the processes used, such as TQM continual improvement programs do. Furthermore, these audits would foster an evolving awareness of ethical considerations for each of the eight dimensions in a particular organisation, and in a particular country. Conclusion Evidence suggests that bribery is a fact of life in international marketing that can lead to astonishment, bewilderment and misunderstanding for expatriates at both organisational and personal levels. Two viewpoints about bribery were examined. The first viewpoint was relativist, accepting that bribery has the same roots in Western and other countries and so different ethical systems may be simply the result of different cultural values. In contrast, the second, universalist viewpoint is that a set of ethical values applies anywhere in the world, based on psychological and economic grounds. To bridge these two views, it is strongly suggested to try to understand the cultural forces that determine home and overseas attitudes to the many forms of bribery, which will indeed be a first step to adjustment. The next step is to develop a global or regional code of conduct that allows flexibility within a gray zone for some situations in particular countries, based on win-win adjustments. The result could be an evolving code of conduct that adapts to the many dimensions of bribery for each countrys situation, in a manner that is a negotiation between the cultural, psychological and economic values of an expatriates organisation and of local officials. 1945